Motherboard & Components of it

•The motherboard is generally a circuit board that holds together almost all parts of a computer except input and output devices.

•All crucial hardware like CPU, memory, hard drive, and ports for input and output devices are located on the motherboard.

•It allocates power to all hardware located on it and enables them to communicate with each other. It is also used to hold the computer’s microprocessor chip.

•Each component that runs the computer or improves its performance is a part of the motherboard or connected to it through a slot or port.

•It contains a chipset, which manages data flow between the CPU, memory and other components.

•The chipset is responsible for controlling the timing and speed of data transfer and for managing system resources such as interrupts and DMA (Direct memory access)

•This motherboard also includes a BIOS chip, which stores the firmware that initializes the system when it is first powered on. The BIOS performs a power-on self-test(POST) to check for hardware errors and then loads the operating system into memory.

Components of a Motherboard:

•CPU Slot: It is provided to install the CPU. It is a link between a microprocessor and a motherboard. Furthermore, it is provided with a lock to prevent CPU movement and a heat sink to dissipate the extra heat.

•RAM Slot: It is a memory slot or socket provided in the motherboard to insert or install the RAM (Random Access Memory). There can be two or more memory slots in a computer.

•Expansion Slot: It is also called the bus slot or expansion port. It is a connection or port on the motherboard, which provides an installation point to connect a hardware expansion card, for example, a video expansion card and install it into the expansion slot and then can install a new video card in the computer. Some of the common expansion slots in a computer are AGP, AMR, CNR, PCI, etc.

•Northbridge: It is an integrated circuit that allows communications between the CPU interface, AGP, and memory. Furthermore, it also allows the southbridge chip to communicate with the RAM, CPU, and graphics controller.

•Southbridge : The southbridge’s main purpose is to handle the input/output (I/O) functions of the computer. It acts as a bridge between the central processing unit (CPU) and other peripheral devices, facilitating communication and data transfer.

•USB Port: It allows you to connect hardware devices like mouse, keyboard to your computer.

•PCI Slot: It stands for Peripheral Component Interconnect slot. It allows you to connect the PCI devices like modems, network hardware, sound, and video cards.

•AGP Slot: It stands for Accelerated Graphics Port. It provides the slot to connect graphics cards.

Types of Mother Board

•There can be different types of motherboards based on the type and size of the computers. So, a specific motherboard can work only with specific types of processors and memory. Some of the most common motherboard :

•ATX (Advance Technology Extended, 1995) – It is the most common for desktop computers. It measures 12 x 9.6 inches and typically supports multiple PCI- Express slots, USB ports, SATA ports and other standard features.

•Micro-ATX (1997) – It is the smaller version of the ATX, measuring 9.6 x 9.6 inches. It typically supports fewer expansion slots and ports that ATX, but is more compact and easily fit into smaller cases.

•Mini-ITX (1999)- It is even smaller than Micro-ATX, measuring 6.7 x 6.7 inches. It is designed for use small systems, such as home theater PCs or compact desktops. It typically supports only one PCI- Express slot and a limited number of ports.

•Extended ATX – It is a larger version of the ATX, measuring 12 x 13 inches. It is designed for use in high-end gaming or workstation systems and typically supports multiple PCI-Express slots, high-end cooling systems and other advanced features.

•BTX ( Balanced Technology eXtended) – It is a less common for desktop computers. It was designed to improve cooling and reduce noise in desktop computers. It features a rotated motherboard layout and improved airflow but is not widely used in modern systems.

•ITX variants – There are also various ITX variants such as Nano-ITX and Pico-ITX which are smaller that Mini-ITX and are used in smaller embedded systems.

Integrated Video Connectors on a Motherboard

VGA (Video Graphics Array) – This is an analog video output that is used to connect the computer/Laptop to a CRT monitor or a LCD monitor or LED monitor. It is usually blue in colour and has 15 pins.

DVI (Digital Visual Interface)– This is a digital video output that is used to connect the computer to a digital LCD monitor or a projector. It can transmit both digital and analog signals, but some DVI ports may only support digital signals. DVI ports can be of two types, DVI-D (digital only) and DVI-I (digital and analog)

HDMI (High-Definition Multimedia Interface) – This is a digital video and audio output that is used to connect the computer to an LCD monitor, a TV, a home theatre system. It can transmit high definition video and audio signals and supports HDCP (High-bandwidth Digital Content Protection) for content protection.

High-definition video (HD video) is video of higher resolution and quality than standard-definition. While there is no standardized meaning for high-definition, generally any video image with considerably more than 480 vertical scan lines (North America) or 576 vertical lines (Europe) is considered high-definition.

High Definition Audio, also known as HD Audio or by its code name, Azalia, is an audio standard created by Intel to be used on their chipsets, i.e., it is a standard for high-quality on-board audio.

Display Port – This is a digital video and audio output that is used to connect the computer LCD monitor or a projector. It can transmit hoigh-definition video and audio signals and support multiple displays, daisy-chaining and MST (Multi-Stream Transport) for multiple independent video streams.

Thunderbolt – This is a digital video and data output that is used to connect the computer to an LCD monitor or a device like a hard drive or a camera. It can transmit high-speed data and video signals and supports multiple displays, daisy-chaining and bi-directional data transfer.

Small Computer System Interface (SCSI)

•SCSI is a set of standards for connecting and transferring data between computers and peripheral devices, such as hard drives, scanners etc.

•Some motherboards may include integrated SCSI connectors which allow easy connection of SCSI devices without the need for a separate SCSI card.

•However SCSI connectors are not as common on modern motherboard because it is replaced by newer interface standards, such as Serial ATA (SATA) and USB.

•Based on the specification, it can typically respond up to 16 external devices using a single route, along with a host adapter.

•Small Computer System Interface is used to boost performance, deliver fast data transfer delivery and provide wider expansion for machines like CD-ROM drivers, scanners, DVD> drives and CD writers.

•Small Computer System Interface is most commonly used for RAID, servers, highly efficient desktop computers, and storage area networks.

•Interface has control, which is responsible for transmitting data across the Small Computer System Interface bus and the computers.

Small Computer System Interface (SCSI)

•Internal SCSI – These connectors are located on the motherboard itself and allow for the connection of internal SCSI devices such as hard drives.

•External SCSI – These connectors are located on the back of the computer case and allow for the connection of eternal SCSI devices, such as scanners or CD/DVD drives.

•SCSI Controller – Some motherboards may include an integrated SCSI controller which allows for the connection of SCSI devices directly to the motherboard without the need for a separate SCSI card. The SCSI controller may support a range of SCSI standards such as SCSI-1, SCSI-2, SCSI-3 or Ultra SCSI.

Motherboard Chipset

•Chipset is a group of electronic components in a computer or other electronic device that manages the data flow between the processor, memory and other peripheral devices.

•The chipset includes a set of interconnected chips that work together to control the system’s input/output operations and memory access.

•The chipset determines system’s speed, memory capacity and the types of devices that can be connected to it.

•In a personal computer, the chipset is referred to “motherboard chipset”.

•Two main chipset in computer motherboard is North bridge and South bridge.

•North bridge handles the connection between the processor and high-speed components like memory and graphics card.

•South bridge manages lower-speed components like USB ports and storage devices.

Chipset Architecture

•The Motherboard busses are regulated by a number of controllers in a PC Motherboard.

•These are all small small circuits and look after a particular job.

•So considering the fact that there are many different types of hardware and for this a number of controllers are needed on a motherboard.

•And thus most of these Controller functions were grouped together into a couple of large chips, which makes the Chipset Architecture.

•Due to the difficulty of integrating all components onto a single chipset, this Intel’s earlier Chipset were broken down into a Multi-Tier Architecture known as North-Bridge/South-Bridge Architecture.

•And it was further divided into two Components, i.r., North-Bridge and South-Bridge.

•This North-Bridge and South-Bridge were connected by a powerful Internal-Bus called a ‘Link Channel”

•Here these two chips manage communications between the CPU and other parts of the motherboard by sharing the work of managing the data-traffic and constitute the core logic chipset of the PC Motherboard.

North-Bridge 1

•One of the most important Chip in the Core-Logic Chipset.

•It is the highest-speed component of the Chipset.

•And responsible for the interfacing of CPU, Main-Memory/RAM, Local AGP Graphics slots and controlling the flow of data between the CPU, RAM & AGP Port for handling communications among them.

•It In-directly controls the flow of data among the hardware parts (CPU,RAM,AGP & South-Bridge.

•It establishes a 4-way connection between them.

North-Bridge 2

•So this North-Bridge is usually slightly larger than the South-Bridge, it is closer to CPU & Main-Memory,

•So that whenever the CPU needs data from RAM, a request can be sent to the Memory-Controller of the North-Bridge. And the advantage is it reduces the amount of time taken by a packet of data from the CPU to memory.

•As the speed of the processor becomes Faster so this North-Bridge generally gets large amount of Data-Traffic passed in a Very-High Frequency so it gets more hotter. Therefore to control its temperature and provide more cooling A Big Heat-Sinker is attached to it.

South-Bridge 1

•The second most important chip in the Core-Logic Chipset.

•South-Bridge is the lowest speed component of the Chipset.

•It is responsible for controlling the operation of transfer of data to & fro from the Hard disk to all the other I/O devices as well as Peripheral-Devices.

•During the Data-Transfer Process between the HDDs to all other I/O & Peripheral Devices, for the Data Control & Access the northbridge directly link signals from the I/O units to the CPU with the help of CICC(Controller Integrated Channel Circuitry) which is connected to the North-Bridge by a Link-Channel known as Internal-Bus.

South-Bridge 2

•The I/O Ports & Buses generally operate at a far slower speed than the FSB connected to the CPU by the North-Bridge.

•So an external system-support is been provided by a device through the South-Bridge by implementing the slower capabilities of the Motherboard in a North bridge/South bridge Chipeset Architecture known as “Super I/O”.

•This “Super I/O” device consist of various system support for the I/O Ports & Buses which incorporates a set of number of different controller function.

Different controller function

•LPC Bridge : It provides a Data & Control-Path to the Super I/O & FWH (Firm-Ware HUB) which provides access to BIOS Flash-storage.

•SPI-Bus : It is a simple Serial-Bus mostly used for FWH

•SM-Bus : It is used to communicate with other devices on the Motherboard, e.g System Temperature Sensors, Fan-Controllers)

•DMA-Controller : The DMA-Controller allows ISA/LPC Devices to directly access the Main-Memory without needing help from the CPU.

•Interrupt-Controllers : The Interrupt-Controller provides a mechanism for attached devices to get attention from the CPU.

•Mass Storage Controllers : This typically allows Direct-Attachment of System Hard-Drive by PATA and / or SATA.

Serial Peripheral Interface bus– A four-line, synchronous, serial bus from Motorola that is widely used to connect a microcontroller to peripheral chips on a circuit board.

Application performance monitoring (APM) is the practice of tracking key software application performance metrics using monitoring software and telemetry data

ACPI is designed to allow the operating system to control the amount of power provided to each device or peripheral attached to the computer system

•Real – time Clock : The real time clock provides a Persistent Time-Account.

•Power-Management (APM & ACPI) : The APM or ACPI functions provide methods and signalling to allow the computer to sleep or shut down to save power.

•Non-Volatile BIOS Memory : The system CMOS (BIOS Configuration Memory), assisted by the Supplemental Battery-Power, creates a Limited Non-Volatile Storage-Area for System Configuration Data.

A Brief Overview

•The Northbridge and Southbridge chipset architecture is designed to optimize the performance and functionality of a motherboard by allowing the CPU and other devices to communicate with each other quickly and efficiently.

•While modern chipsets may combine these two components into a single chip, known as the Platform Controller Hub(PCH). This allows for more efficient communication between components and can lead to improve performance and power efficiency.

•But the basic principles of Northbridge and Southbridge architecture continue to play an important role in motherboard design and performance optimization.

Some overview of Intel Chipset for Processor Socket LGA 2066 and LGA 1200

•Intel currently has two main processor socket types for high-end desktop CPUs : LGA 2066 and LGA 1200.

•Each socket type requires a different chipset to support the CPU and provide the necessary functionality for the motherboard.

•LGA 2066 is a kind of CPU socket that makes use of the land grid array (LGA) mounting surface. It has 2066 contact pins for contacting with the bottom interface of its compatible CPUs. Also known as Socket R4 or Socket 2066, was first released in June’2017.

•It is used for Intel’s Core X-series processor, which are high-performance CPUs designed for content creation, gaming, and other demanding applications.

•The Chipset used for it is the Intel X299 chipset.

Some overview of Intel Chipset for Processor Socket LGA 2066 and LGA 1200

•This Chipset supports up to 44 PCI lanes, allowing for a variety of high-speed peripherals to be connected, such as NVMe SSDs, graphics cards and Thunderbolt 3 devices.

•It also support quad-channel DDR4 memory for improved memory bandwidth and overall system performance.

•LGA 1200 is a zero insertion force flip-flop land grid array (LGA) socket, compatible with Intel desktop processors Comet Lake (10^th gen) and Rocket Lake (11^th gen) desktop CPUs, which was released in April 2020.

•It is used for Core i9, Core i7 and Core i5.

•The Chipsets used for LGA 1200 is the Intel Z490 (for 10^th gen) and Z590(for 11^th gen) chipset.

Some overview of Intel Chipset for Processor Socket LGA 2066 and LGA 1200

•These chipset support up to 24 PCIe lanes, allowing for multiple NVMe SSDs and graphics cards to be connected.

•The Z590 chipset also adds support for PCIe 4.0 which doubles the bandwidth of PCIe 3.0 and enhances overall system performance.

•In summary, the LGA 2066 socket is designed for high-end workstation and content creation builds, while LGA 1200 socket is designed for gaming and mainstream desktop builds.

•Both socket have their own chipset, offering a range of features and capabilities to suit the needs of different users.

Overview of SP3r2 AND It’s Features

•The AMD chipset for Processor Socket SP3r2 is the AMD X399 chipset.

•This chipset is designed for use with the AMD Ryzen Threadripper processor, which use the SP3r2 socket.

•It support for quad-channel DDR4 memory, PCIe 3.0 lanes, and NVMe storage.

•It also supports advanced technologies such as AMD StoreMI, which allows for faster system boot times and application load times by combining and SSD and a hard drive into a single virtual drive.

•The AMD X999 chipset also provides advanced connectivity options, such as support USB 3.1 Gen 2, SATA 6GB/s and multiple M.2 slots for high-speed SSDs.

Overview of SP3r3 AND It’s Features

•The AMD chipset for Processor Socket SP3r3 is the AMD TRX40 chipset.

•This chipset is designed for use with the third-generation AMD Ryzen Threadripper processor, which use the SP3r3 socket.

•It provides high-performance features, such as support for quad-channel DDR4 memory, PCIe 4.0 lanes, and NVMe storage.

•It also supports advance technologies such as AMD StoreMI, which allows for faster system boot times and application load times by combining an SSD and a hard drive into a single virtual drive.

•This chipset also provides advanced connectivity options, support for USB 3.2 Gen 2, SATA 6GB/s and multiple M.2 slots for high-speed SSDs.

NVMe (nonvolatile memory express) is a new storage access and transport protocol for flash and next-generation solid-state drives (SSDs) that delivers the highest throughput and fastest response times yet for all types of enterprise workloads.

For the fastest data transfer speeds available, look no further than the NVMe SSD. Through its Peripheral Component Interconnect Express (PCIe) bus, NVMe SSDs can achieve transfer speeds of up to 20 gigabytes per second (Gbps)—more than three times the speed of a SATA SSD.

AMD StoreMI Technology is a fast and easy way to expand and accelerate the storage in a desktop PC with an AMD Ryzen™ processor.

AMD StoreMI technology is a powerful tool for PC enthusiasts to want to improve load times, boot times, file management, or system responsiveness: Maybe you installed Windows® to a hard drive, but don’t want to reinstall anything to get SSD-like performance: StoreMI can help that.

Difference between AMD Chipset for Processor Socket SP3r2 & SP3r3

PROCESSOR SUPPORT:

•The SR5690 chipset is designed for processor with the SP3r2 socket, such as AMD Opteron 6000 series processor.

•On the other hand, the SP3r2 chipset is designed for processor with the SP3r3 socket, such as the AMD EPYC processor.

•The EPYC processors are newer and more powerful than the Opteron 6000 series processor and are designed for use in high-performance server application.

Difference between AMD Chipset for Processor Socket SP3r2 & SP3r3

PCI Express Lanes:

•The SP3r3 chipset provides up to 128 PCI Express 4.0 lanes

•While SR5690 chipset provides up to 40 PCI Express 2.0 lanes.

•This means that the SP3r3 chipset support more high-speed I/O connectivity, such as NVMe SSD and high-speed networking cards, than the SR5690 chipset.

Difference between AMD Chipset for Processor Socket SP3r2 & SP3r3

Memory support:

•The SP3r3 chipset supports eight-channel DDR4 memory with speeds up 3200MHz

•While the SR5690 chipset supports quad-channel DDR3 memory with speeds up to 1600MHz.

•This means that the SP3r3 chipset can support more bandwidth and memory speeds than the SR5690 chipset, which can improve performance in memory-intensive applications.

Difference between AMD Chipset for Processor Socket SP3r2 & SP3r3

•Both chipsets support enterprise-class features such as Error Correcting memory and AMD Secure Processor technology.

•However, the SP3R3 chipset also supports AMD Infinity Fabric technology, which allows for high-speed communication between processors.

DEFINITION OF BUS

•In computing a Bus refers to a communication pathway or data transfer system that enables different components of a computer system to communicate and share information with each other.

•A Bus is typically composed of multiple electrical pathways or wires that transfer data, control signals, and power between different components such as the processor, memory, input/output devices, and other peripheral devices.

•Bus can be classified based on different factors such as the types of components they connect, their bandwidth, their speed and their communication protocols.

SYSTEM BUS

•A system bus connects the CPU, memory and other components of a computer system that are involved in the processing of data.

•It is responsible for carrying data and control signals between the CPU and memory.

•The system bus consists of three types of buses: the Address bus, Data bus and Control bus.

•The address bus is used to specify the memory location to be accessed, the data bus is used to transfer data between the CPU and memory and the control bus is used to carry control signals that govern the operation of the system bus.

I/O BUS

•An I/O bus connects peripheral devices such as keyboards, mouse, printers and network cards to the CPU and memory.

•It is responsible for carrying data and control signals between the CPU and these peripheral devices.

•The I/O bus is typically slower than the system bus and may use different protocols and signalling mechanisms.

•Some example of I/O buses include PCI, USB and SATA (Serial ATA).

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE SYSTEM BUS & I/O BUS

•The system bus is designed to carry data and control signals between the CPU and memory

•While the I/O bus is designed to carry data and control signals between the CPU and peripheral devices.

•The system bus is typically faster than the I/O bus and uses a more complex signalling mechanism to enable the transfer of large amounts of data between the CPU and memory.

•The I/O bus is designed to be flexible and accommodate a wide range of peripheral devices that may have different data transfer rates and protocols.

Understanding the different types of buses and their functions is important for understanding the overall architecture of a computer system and how its components interact with each other.

TYPES OF BUS

•SYSTEM BUS: A system bus connects the CPU to the main memory of a computer system. It typically consists of an address bus, a data bus, a control bus, all together enable the CPU to read and write data from and to the memory.

•ADDRESS BUS: This bus is used to identify a specific memory location in the main memory or cache.

•DATA BUS: This bus is used to transfer data between the processor, memory and other components.

•CONTROL BUS: This bus is used to transmit control signals that synchronize the actions of different components in the system.

•PERIPHERAL BUS: A peripheral bus connects various peripheral devices, such as I/O devices, storage devices, expansion card to the CPU and memory. e.g., USB, PCIe, SATA

TYPES OF BUS

FRONT-SIDE BUS :

•A front-side bus (FSB) connects the CPU to the North Bridge chipset in older computer architectures.

•It provides a high speed communication pathway between the CPU and the memory, as well as other computers such as the graphics card and the South bridge chipset.

BACK-SIDE BUS:

•A back-side bus(BSB) is a bus that connects the CPU to the L3 cache memory in some computer architectures.

•It provides a high speed communication pathway between the CPU and the cache memory, which can improve performance by reducing the time it takes for the CPU to access data

BUS OPERATION & APPLICATION

•It refers to the process of transferring data between different components of a computer system using a bus.

•The operation of a bus involves transmitting data, control signals and addressing information between the components.

Memory Access:

•Buses are used to access the main memory of a computer system.

•The processor sends the memory address on the address bus and the memory data is transferred on the data bus.

I/O Operations:

•Buses are used for input/output operations to communicate with peripheral devices such as keyboard, mouse, printers and network cards.

•The data from the peripheral device is transferred to the processor through the I/O bus.

System Interconnect :

•Buses are used to interconnect different components of a computer system such as the processor, memory and chipset.

•The FSB connects the processor to the North bridge chipset, which is responsible for managing the memory and other components.

Cache Operations:

•Buses are used for cache operations in modern processor.

•The cache memory is connected to the processor through the BSB, which provides a high-speed pathway for communication between the processor and the cache memory.

Bus Bridge:

•Buses are used for connecting different computer systems or networks.

•Bus bridges are used to connect different buses and enable communication between the different systems or networks.

Bus Arbitration:

•Buses are used to manage the sharing of resources between different components of a computer system.

•Bus arbitration is the process of managing access to the bus when multiple components are requesting access at the same time.

I/O PORT

•An I/O port is a communication channel that allows the exchange of data between a computer and external devices or peripherals.

•I/O ports are used to connect devices such as KB, Mouse, Printers, Scanners and external storage devices to a computer system.

•Each I/O port has a unique address or identifier, which is used by the operating system and applications to communicate with the peripheral devices.

•The address of I/O port is usually a hexadecimal number and it is mapped to a specific memory location in the computer’s memory.

For example, the keyboard uses the I/O port address 60. This is known as the base address, or the first in the I/O range. The entire range for the keyboard is 60-6F, a total of 16 values (a 16-bit range).

TYPES OF I/O PORT

•Serial Port : These ports are used for connecting serial devices such as modems, serial mouse and barcode scanners.

•Parallel Ports : These ports are used for connecting parallel devices such as printers and eternal hard drives.

•USB Ports : These ports are used for connecting a variety of devices such as KB, mouse, printers, scanners and external storage devices. USB ports are widely used in modern computer systems and are available in different versions, such as USB 1.1, USB 2.0, USB 3.0 and USB 3.1.

•Ethernet Ports : These ports are used for connecting a computer system to a local area network or the Internet.

•Audio Ports: These ports are used for connecting audio devices such as headphone, speakers and microphones.

•Video Ports : These ports are used for connecting video devices such as monitors, projectors and TVs.

What are the Maximum Power Output and Data Transfer Rates for the USB Standards?

•USB 1.0: 1.5 Mbps

•USB 1.1: 12 Mbps

•USB 2.0: 480 Mbps

•USB 3.0 and USB 3.1: 5 Gbps

•USB 3.2 gen 2: 10 Gbps

In terms of USB power specifications, a standard USB 1.0 or 2.0 port contains four pins, and the applicable USB cable has four wires. The inner pins carry data (D+ and D-), and the outer pins provide a 5-volt power supply. However, USB 3.0 ports include an additional row of five pins; therefore, USB 3.0 compatible cables will have nine wires.

In general, the specifications for a USB 1.0 and 2.0 standard downstream port, delivers up to 500 mA or 0.5A. Also, with a USB 3.0, it can provide up to 900mA or 0.9A, which translates into 4.5 watts. These power output specifications are a rating based on the 5 volts from each standard output. However, the USB 3.0 dedicated charging and charging downstream ports provide up to 1,500 mA or 1.5A, which translates into 7.5 watts.

As I am sure you are aware, the universal serial bus is not only a method of transferring data but power as well. Except for mobile devices manufactured by Apple, all current smartphone models utilize a USB port for charging, data transfer, and even sharing their network connection (tethering).

Some devices only use USB as a method of power transfer, for example, power banks. Plenty of devices that transfer no data at all still use USB for charging. This also means that there are some cables strictly designed for power transfer only and lack the wiring for data transfer. Moreover, in some cases, it is preferable to use USB cables that can only transfer power since it prevents hackers and malicious software from infecting your device.

I/O PORT OPERATIONS

•I/O port operations refer to the process of transferring data.

•It occurs between a computer system and external devices connected to the I/O ports.

•The operations involve sending and receiving data and control signal.

•The I/O port operations involve the following steps:

•Addressing : The computer system uses the unique address of the I/O port to identify the device connected to it.

•Control signals : The computer system sends control signals to the I/O port to initiate an operation. These signals include commands to read or write data, activate or deactivate the device and interrupt signals.

•Data Transfer : The computer system transfer data between the memory and the I/O port. This data can be sent from the computer system to the external device or received from the external device to the computer system.

•Interrupt Handling : The I/O port sends an interrupt signals to the processor when the data transfer is complete or when an error occurs. The processor then handles the interrupt by executing the interrupt handler routine, which can perform tasks such as updating the device driver or displaying an error message.

•There are different modes of I/O operations, including programmed I/O , interrupt-driven I/O and direct memory access (DMA) (DMA Controller is a hardware device that allows I/O devices to directly access memory with less participation of the processor.).

•In programmed I/O, the processor controls the data transfer between the memory and the I/O port.

•In interrupt-driven I/O, the I/O port sends an interrupt signal to the processor when the data transfer is complete and allowing the processor to perform other tasks while waiting for the data transfer to complete.

•In DMA, a separate DMA controller manages the data transfer between the memory and the I/O port, freeing up the processor to perform other tasks.

•I/O ports are used for a wide variety of applications in computer systems.

•These ports enable communication between the computer system and external devices.

•Some common applications of I/O ports include

•Peripheral Devices : I/O ports are used to connect peripheral devices such as keyboards, mouse, printers, scanners and eternal storage devices to a computer system.

•Network connectivity : Ethernet I/O ports are used to connect a computer system to a local area network or the Internet. These ports also allow users to access network resources such as file, printers and servers and communicate with other devices on the network.

•Audio and Video Devices : This ports are used to connect audio and video devices such as headphones, speakers, microphones, monitors, projectors and TVs to a computer system.

•Data Acquisition and Control : I/O ports are used in data acquisition and control applications, where sensors and actuators are used to monitor and control physical systems. I/O ports can be used to connect sensors that monitor temperature, pressure, and other parameters and actuators that control motors, valves and other devices.

I/O PORT APPLICATIONS

•Industrial Control Systems: I/O ports are used in industrial control systems where they are used to connect programmable logic controllers (PLCs) and other devices that control manufacturing processes and machinery.

•Gaming and Entertainment : I/O ports are used in gaming and entertainment applications where they are used to connect game controllers, virtual reality headsets and other devices that enhance the gaming and entertainment experience.

So I/O ports functions and applications are diverse and widespread.

The efficient operations of I/O ports is important for the performance and functionality of the system.

I/O PORT TYPES

•There are several types of I/O ports that are commonly used in computer system :

•Internal Port : It connects the system’s motherboard to internal devices like hard disk, CD Drive, internal Bluetooth, etc.

•External Port : It connects the system’s motherboard to external devices like a mouse, printer, USB, etc.

Serial Port : Serial ports are a type of low-speed serial port used for connecting devices such as modems, serial mouse and barcode scanners to a computer system.

2. Used for external modems and older computer mouse

3. Two version – 9 pin, 25 pin

4. Data travels at 115 Kb per second.

•Parallel Port : A parallel port is a type of computer interface used to connect peripheral devices, such as printers, scanners and external hard drives to a computer.

•It transmits data in parallel, meaning that multiple bits are transferred simultaneously over multiple wires or channels.

•Parallel ports have been traditionally used for high-speed data transfer, such as printing, because they can transfer a large amount of data in a short amount of time.

•They typically have a maximum data transfer rate of around 2 megabytes per second.

•Used for scanners and printers and 25 pin.

•Type A USB : The common Joe USB connector.

•Type B USB : The “square type” connector that is commonly used for printers.

•Mini & Micro Type B USB : Used for mobile devices such as smartphones tablets and digital cameras.

•Type C : Also used for mobile devices, but this one is reversible. There is no direction.

•USB ports have a standardized connector which makes it easy to connect devices across different manufacturers and platform.

•USB cables are also designed to be reversible, so they can be plugged in either way without worrying about the orientation.

HDMI PORT & CONNECTOR:

•HDMI is the modern standard interface for audio/video (A/V) connectivity, which stands for High-Definition Multimedia Interface.

•Generally, it is a connector that is used for connecting your audio-video devices together. The first HDMI equipment went under production in the early 21st century in 2003.

•For audio and video data, other types of A/V connections need separate cables, whereas a single HDMI cable carries an uncompressed digital signal that is sufficient for HD audio and video presentations.

•As compared to analog cables, HDMI cables are signal noise and less prone to interference, as it is a digital connection.

•HDMI connectors are available with five different types (A through E) with different specifications and several numbers of pins.

What Video Formats Does HDMI Support?

HDMI Version	Video Formats
HDMI 1.0-1.1	•720p@25/30/50/60Hz •1080p@25/30/50/60Hz
HDMI 1.2-1.2a	•720p@100/120Hz •1440p@25/30Hz
HDMI 1.3-1.4b	•1080p@100/120Hz •1440p@50/60Hz •4K@25/30Hz
HDMI 2.0-2.0b	•1080p@240Hz •1440p@100/120Hz •4K@50/60Hz •5K@25/30Hz
HDMI 2.1	•1440p@240Hz •4K@100/120Hz •5K@50/60/100/120Hz •8K@50/60/100/120Hz •10K@50/60/100/120Hz

What Audio Formats Does HDMI Support?

•DTS 96/24

•DTS-HD High Resolution

•DTS-HD Master Audio

•LPCM (2-ch to 8-ch)

•Dolby Digital

•DTS:X

•DVD-A

•DSD

•Dolby Digital Plus

•Dolby TrueHD

•Dolby Atmos

•DTS

•DTS-ES DTS Express

Different types of HDMI Cables

The two types of HDMI cable are as follows:

Standard cables

For supporting bandwidth of about 2.23 Gbps, these cables perform at pixel speeds of 75 Mhz, also known as Category 1 HDMI cables. This is appropriate to carry an uncompressed 1080i signal.

High-Speed cables

For supporting bandwidth of about 10.2 GBps, these cables perform at pixel speeds of 340 MHz, also known as Category 2 HDMI cables. These cables have the capability of handling the newer WQXGA and 1440p resolutions.

Advantages of HDMI

•Higher Quality: HDMI offers better quality video at low brightness scenes with the best resolutions and enables lossless transmission.

•Deep Colors: HDMI can render over one billion colors in good detail that supports 10-bit, 12 bit and 16-bit (RGB or YCbCr) color depths.

•Single Cable: Unlike other analog cables, HDMI is able to carry audio, video, and control information through a single cable.

•Compatibility with DVI: DVI has the capability to send HD content to display devices as HDMI is backward compatible with the DVI interface.

DISPLAY PORT

•It is actually next of DVI.

•Like HDMI cables, it also carry video and audio signals.

FIREWIRE PORT

•Apple originally developed firewire and it is inbuilt in the mac computers

•It is early version of the USB, but this is not compatible with USB devices.

•FireWire, high-speed computer data-transfer interface that was used to connect personal computers, audio and video devices, and other professional and consumer electronics.

•FireWire, which is also called IEEE 1394

•FireWire 800 is a port used only for data, and Mini DisplayPort is used for audio (in some computers) and video.

THUNDERBOLT

•Thunderbolt 1 & 2 : Adopted much of the Display Port technologies.

•This port is a versatile one that cane be used to both connect devices and output video.

•Thunderbolt 3 : This is a USB Type-C port with video output capabilities.

•With its high data transfer rate, Thunderbolt 2 was ideal for speedy data backups and transfers using external drives.

•If the port is shaped like a Mini DisplayPort, it’s Thunderbolt 1 or 2.

•If the Thunderbolt port is shaped like USB C and reversible it’s a Thunderbolt 3 Port. If you go to About This Mac and the model is Late 2013 or later and it is not a USB C port it is Thunderbolt 2.